Tuesday, March 31, 2020

A Humor: Song of Pandemic



有人把「音樂之聲」那首歌改了詞,來唱COVID-19大流行之歌,如何注意個人防護啊等等。好笑!當然,這歌把人帶進白人大戶或小康人家,自家有個大院子可跑之類的詞。

不過我不太喜歡開頭那幾句,說這病毒是從海外帶來的,特別說是武漢的喉嚨痛與發燒。是美國人喜歡跑到海外,把工廠設在中國,與中國通商的嘛。

Sunday, March 29, 2020

Song: Every Time I Feel The Spirt

This was sung in our church today's virtual worship. I like it very much, the rhyme, the words. "Every time I hear the Spirit, I pray." Yes! Pray for the war on COVID-19, pray for the vuneralble people from infection, and for all the healthcare workers, all the "essentail" life supply workers -- for their safty and their supplies in order to do an effective job.

Thursday, March 26, 2020

人工智能分析發燒數據

本文內容取自TechCrunch的新科技報導,Kinsa's Fever Map證明全社區居家禁足、保持6尺社交距離是有效的。

Kinsa 是一家生產智能體溫計的公司。人們用他們的產品測試自己的體溫,但是公司利用這些體溫數據的地理位置,致力於建立一個精確的預測模型,以便了解在流感季節,流感如何在社區內和社區之間傳播。

隨著COVID-19的大流行,他們的發燒圖有了新用途。 雖然「美國健康氣候圖」不能專門追蹤目前的新病毒傳播,只能查看與地理數據有關的發燒狀況,它卻能提供容易明白的早期指標。假若及時參照他們的數據來施行相應的隔離與社交防範,就真的能夠有效控制社區流感傳播。

2月份《紐約時報》在報道Kinsa的健康氣候圖時,他們在美國市場上有大約1百万個温度計。但截至昨天,他們的訂貨量大大增加,每天訂貨多達1萬個。這說明該公司的智能分析現在是基於非常大的美國人口數據集。 Kinsa的創始人兼首席執行官Inder Singh說,龐大的數據集允許他們獲得空前的準確度和精細度,幫助俄勒岡州立大學Ben Dalziel教授預測出社區的流感傳播。

Signh說,「這說明我們公司的核心假設是對的:醫生需要實時、準確的醫學數據及其地理位置,而這些數據要從剛患病的人那裡獲取,來檢測疾病的爆發,並預測疾病的傳播。我們將體溫數據輸入Dalziel教授現有的傳染病傳播第一主要模型中,於是這模型能夠在9月15日就準確顯示出20個星期內所預測的整個流感季節高峰期和緩和期。」這對於疾病追蹤和減緩流行是很大進步。

Kinsa 最近為發燒圖增加了另外一個功能--尋找「非典型的發燒數量」。他們把測試得到的實時發燒數據,減去流感季節原來所預計的發燒數量,就得到社區內意外增多的發燒人數--在COVID-19大流行的情況下,這些額外的發燒人數很可能就代表了實際感染的人數。這裡Signh給出一個佛州的例子。

在佛州3月22日的發燒圖裡,發紅的區域是超過典型流感季節發燒人數比較多的地方,灰色地帶是沒有增加的地方。你看沿海人員流動大的地區都增加了發燒人數。

Singh解釋說,一個地區發燒人數忽然增加,剛好是新聞報道邁阿密居民和旅遊者忽略禁止聚集的勸告,在海灘繼續照常遊玩的時候。隨著限制人員流動和保持社交距離的嚴格實施,發燒人數不再快速增加並迅速下降,都反映在發燒圖上。

由於Kinsa的發燒數據是實時的,用戶可以隨時了解本區域的疫情。這就好像COVID-19的測試,測得越多,越能夠了解本區域的疫情發展趨勢。COVID-19的美國測試能力起步慢了,目前還有些跟不上需要--你只能了解感染的積累人數,看不見已經自己康復的人數--而我們知道很多人是輕微感冒症狀自己痊癒的。Kinsa的體溫計卻能夠隨時提供額外增加的發燒人數是否減少了。

當然Kinsa的發燒圖只記錄發燒數據,那些發燒未必代表新病毒的感染,有些感染完全沒有症狀。但發燒是這次感染的主要症狀之一,所以至少在一定程度上,這個發燒圖能夠反映出COVID-19疫情。不過現在的非典型發燒圖分析還不能達到精細的程度,Kinsa尋求藉著擴大數據集,以及藉著與其他智能體溫計製造商合作

因為有人在質疑隱私權問題,Signh說Kinsa只關心發燒的地理數據,對用戶的其它個人信息完全沒有興趣,公司也沒有辦法從地理發燒量追溯發燒者的姓名或其他資料。

目前Kinsa正在設法將非典型發燒數字轉化成曲線圖表,讓人一眼看見限制人口流通和保持社交距離對減少非典型發燒的明顯作用。因為每天發表的官方COVID-19在某些地區的感染數字實在令人震驚。

Tuesday, March 24, 2020

Harsh Steps Are Needed to Stop the New Virus

本文取自紐約時報登載的專家意見:Coronavirus Can Be Stopped, but Only With Harsh Steps。有些專家比較相信中國的做法報導和數據,與民間傳聞不一致。

Terrifying though the coronavirus may be, it can be turned back. China, South Korea, Singapore and Taiwan have demonstrated that, with furious efforts, the contagion can be brought to heel.

Whether they can keep it suppressed remains to be seen. But for the United States to repeat their successes will take extraordinary levels of coordination and money from the country’s leaders, and extraordinary levels of trust and cooperation from citizens. It will also require international partnerships in an interconnected world. (美國有獨特的強調個人自由的資本主義民主協商政體)

In interviews with a dozen of the world’s leading experts on fighting epidemics, there was wide agreement on the steps that must be taken immediately.

Americans must be persuaded to stay home, they said, and a system put in place to isolate the infected and care for them outside the home. Travel restrictions should be extended, they said; productions of masks and ventilators must be accelerated, and testing problems must be resolved.

But tactics like forced isolation, school closings and pervasive GPS tracking of patients brought more divided reactions.

It was not at all clear that a nation so fundamentally committed to individual liberty and distrustful of government could learn to adapt to many of these measures.

“The American way is to look for better outcomes through a voluntary system, I think you can appeal to people to do the right thing.” said Dr. Luciana Borio, who was director of medical and biodefense preparedness for the National Security Council before it was disbanded in 2018.

What follows the recommendations offered by the experts interviewed.

Scientists must be heard: Many experts, some of whom are international civil servants, declined to speak on the record for fear of offending the president. But they were united in the opinion that politicians must step aside and let scientists both lead the effort to contain the virus and explain to Americans what must be done. (必須聽從專家意見)

Stop transmission between cities: Extreme social distancing is the next priority. If all Americans freeze in place for 14 days while sitting six feet apart, epidemiologists say, the whole epidemic would sputter to a halt. The virus would die out on every contaminated surface and, because almost everyone shows symptoms within two weeks, it would be evident who was infected. So lockdowns and social distancing is to approximate such a total freeze. Travel and human interaction must be reduced to a minimum. (遏止城市之間的傳播)

On Friday March 20th, Dr. Anthony S. Fauci, chief medical adviser to the White House Coronavirus Task Force, said he advocated restrictive measures all across the country. China's rapid lockdown action had an important effect: With the virus mostly isolated in one province, the rest of China was able to save Wuhan.

Stop transmission within cities: Within cities, there are dangerous hot spots: One restaurant, one gym, one hospital, even one taxi may be more contaminated than many identical others nearby because someone had a coughing fit inside. Each day’s delay in stopping human contact, experts said, creates more hot spots. To stop the explosion, municipal activity must be curtailed. Still, some Americans must stay on the job to provide essential services. The delivery of food and medicine etc must continue. (遏止感染區域向周圍傳播)

Fix the testing mess: Testing must be done in a coordinated and safe way, experts said. The seriously ill must go first, and the testers must be protected. In the United States, people seeking tests are calling their doctors, who may not have them, or sometimes waiting in traffic jams leading to store parking lots. On Friday, New York City limited testing only to those patients requiring hospitalization, saying the system was being overwhelmed. (及時測試確診)

Isolate the infected: As soon as possible, experts said, the United States must develop an alternative to the practice of isolating infected people at home, as it endangers families. In China, 75 to 80 percent of all transmission occurred in family clusters. CDC experts now said cities should establish facilities where the mildly and moderately ill can recuperate under the care and observation of nurses. (隔離感染者)

Find the fevers: In most cities in affected Asian countries, it is commonplace before entering any bus, train or subway station, office building, theater or even a restaurant to get a temperature check. Washing your hands in chlorinated water is often also required. (在公共場所測量體溫)

Trace the contacts: Finding and testing all the contacts of every positive case is essential, experts said. China use an app that rates people's health risk; South Korean apps tell users exactly where infected people have traveled; Singapore university records where everyone sat in a class, affected contacts generally must remain home for 14 days and report their temperatures twice a day. (追蹤感染者)

Make masks ubiquitous: There is very little data showing that flat surgical masks protect healthy individuals from disease. Nonetheless, Asian countries generally encourage people wear them. The Asian approach is less about data than it is about crowd psychology, experts explained. All experts agree that the sick must wear masks to keep in their coughs. But if a mask indicates that the wearer is sick, many people will be reluctant to wear one. (為了大眾心理,都戴口罩)

Preserve vital services: Only the federal government can enforce interstate commerce laws to ensure that food, water, electricity, gas, phone lines and other basic needs keep flowing across state lines to cities and suburbs. Federal government can compel companies to prioritize making ventilators, masks and other needed goods; President can order military hospital ships to the fight. (維持人民生活的基本需要,諸如保證食品、藥物、水、電、煤氣、電訊的供應)

Produce ventilators and oxygen: The roughly 175,000 ventilators in all American hospitals and the national stockpile are expected to be far fewer than are needed to handle a surge of patients desperate for breath. The manufacturers, including a dozen in the United States, say there is no easy way to ramp up production quickly. But it is possible other manufacturers, including aerospace and automobile companies, could be enlisted to do so. The United States must also work to increase its supply of piped and tanked oxygen. (緊急生產呼吸機和氧氣)

Retrofit hospitals: Hospitals in the United States have taken some measures to handle surges of patients, such as stopping elective surgery and setting up isolation rooms. To protect bedridden long-term patients, nursing homes and hospitals also should immediately stop admitting visitors and do constant health checks on their staffs. (緊急修建醫院隔離室)

Recruit volunteers: With some training, China's volunteers were able to do some ground-level but crucial medical tasks, such as basic nursing, lab technician work or making sure that hospital rooms were correctly decontaminated. Americans can step forward to help neighbors too.(徵用志願義工)

Prioritize the treatments in new trials: Clinicians in China, Italy and France have thrown virtually everything they had in hospital pharmacies into the figh. There is not proof yet that any of those are effective against the virus. If any drug works on critical cases, it might be possible to use small doses as a prophylactic to prevent infection. A purified blood serum — called immunoglobulin — could possibly be used in small amounts to protect emergency medical workers. (治療藥物的研發和試驗現為首要任務)

Find a vaccine: Dr. Fauci has explained multiple times, testing those candidate vaccines for safety and effectiveness takes time. The process will take at least a year, even if nothing goes wrong. Because the human immune system takes weeks to produce antibodies, and some dangerous side effects can take weeks to appear. (各方疫苗研發尚未成功,人體試驗很危險)

In the past, some experimental vaccines have produced serious side effects, such as causing “immune enhancement”, i.e. making it more likely, not less, that recipients will get a disease. It is quite a risk to carry out vaccine's human testing.

Reach out to other nations: The Asian nations that have contained the virus could offer expertise — and desperately needed equipment. Jack Ma, the billionaire founder of Alibaba, recently offered large shipments of masks and testing kits to the United States. Wealthy nations ignored the daily warnings from Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, the W.H.O.’s director general, that far more aggressive efforts at isolation and contact tracing were urgently needed to stop the virus. That must change.(與其他國家互相借鑑)

In declaring the coronavirus a pandemic, Dr. Tedros called for countries to learn from one another’s successes, act with unity and help protect one another against a threat to people of every nationality. “Let’s all look out for each other,” he said. (各國彼此守護,不要像該隱:創世記4章9節)

Sunday, March 22, 2020

An Astronaut's Guide to Self Isolation


If anyone knows how to not go crazy while spending a lot of time alone, it's an astronaut.

Self-isolating and social distancing to help slow down the spread of coronavirus isn't easy, but for astronauts like Chris Hadfield it's part of the job. Working in close quarters with limited supplies while far from family and friends is what astronauts must get used to while working for months at a time in space.

On Saturday, Hadfield posted a video called Astronaut's Guide to Self Isolation to help those struggling with working from home or just feeling stir-crazy during the pandemic.

Hadfield offers ways to cope with self-isolating that he learned from his time spent in space. "Understand the actual risk, don't just be afraid of things," Hadfield said in the video. "Go to a credible source and find out what is truly the risk that you're facing right now."

Hadfield recommends you have a mission and make goals during this time. Decide what you want to get done and what you need to accomplish. He suggests people start a new project or study something new like how to play guitar or learn another language. (What about trying a new receipe? Or learning to sew a facemask for oneself and family members?)

"Take care of yourself, take care of your family and friends, take care of your spaceship," Hadfield said.

(本文轉自電子消費技術評論媒體CNET的文章:NASA Austronaut Chris Hadfield shares tips。)

Thursday, March 19, 2020

新冠病毒測試的美國延遲

美國1月21日確診第一例新冠病毒(COVID-19)。8個星期之後,很多有疑似症狀的人,以及和確定感染者有過密切接觸的人,仍然無法測試!直到上星期,美國每天只能為大約7000人做測試,試盒供應不上。美國傳染病研究所的Fauci博士告訴國會:我們目前的醫療體系不適合解決眼前的危機!

做這個測試其實並不複雜,所用的標準技術叫作「聚合酶鏈反應」(簡稱PCR)。醫生用一個綿簽在患者鼻腔或喉嚨擦拭取樣,然後把樣本送到一個實驗室,看其中有沒有所查病毒的基因材料片段。這個分析方法操作複雜但可靠。

假如保健體系運作良好,這些測試幫助研究人員掌控病毒流行,糟糕的是,這次事情完全不像所預期的。而且PCR在疫情爆發的情況下,即使能用也太慢了。

醫生最好能在他的診所做測試,而且最好是馬上知道結果,這叫作Point of Care Testing,容我暫譯為「臨床即時測試」。研究人員說,臨床即時測試技術是有的,但一直沒有足夠規模的投資來投產和使用。(聯邦政府在做甚麼?等著資本家感覺有利可圖來做嗎?這次遇到緊急情況才抓瞎了。)

新冠病毒的基因序列一月份就得到了,中國的病毒研究人員把它輸入國際的病毒數據庫。德國的研究人員立即設計了PCR,可以從患者樣本測試新的COVID-19病毒。世界衛生組織(WHO)採用它,在世界各地,包括在南朝鮮,做檢測。

華盛頓大學生物工程系Paul Yager教授說,PCR很可靠,患者樣品中有一丁點病毒就檢測得出來,不太可能出現錯誤的陰性反應結果。這項1980年代的技術,其專利2005年就過期了,任何實驗室使用它都無需花很大成本--你只要知道了病毒的基因系列,設計測試過程是直截了當的。

這個直截了當的過程操作起來卻複雜費力:技術員必須小心地把患者樣品與一丁點化學物質在一個試管中混合,然後放入一台熱循環機器,熱循環幾個鐘頭以後就知道結果了。

不是所有的實驗室都能做這個測試,因為這個過程必須在高度清潔的環境裡進行,不能有任何污染,所以建立一個實驗室需要經過特別批准。在美國,申請一個實驗室做PCR測試一般要花幾個月的時間,而每個實驗室一天只能做80個樣本測試。華盛頓大學的生物實驗室有多台設備,也有很多熟練的技術員,每天大約能做2000個測試。

但美國的疾病防控中心CDC這次沒有使用WHO所推廣的新冠PCR過程,他們決定創立自己的測試過程。像上次測Ebola病毒一樣,使用美國自己的過程倒也問題不大,可惜這次州裡的實驗室發現新的試盒給出錯誤的陽性結果。CDC不得不調整,重新設計和生產試盒,以致延誤了病毒廣泛傳播所需要的及時測試。與此同時,南韓使用WHO所推廣的PCR,每天測試1萬人,至今已經測了25萬人。

在正常情況下,州裡的公共保健實驗室一但發現CDC的試盒不工作,應該立即可以創建自己的PCR測試。但由於全國已宣告公共保健的緊急狀態,使用新的測試過程必須得到食品藥物管理局(FDA)的批准,這也延遲了測試。直到2月29日,FDA放寬了規定,各州的實驗室才開始做自己的COVID-19測試。

美國現在有機器可以做自動的PCR測試,大大加快測試速度。但公司建立這些自動測試系統需要好幾個星期,而且需要申請到FDA的批准。Roche是一家藥物診斷公司,他們到3月13日才得到自動測試的許可。

專家們說,這些延遲和推出新過程的緩慢情形令人焦急。南朝鮮的測試快多了--他們沒有美國這些規條障礙。2009年測試豬流感(H1N1)時,新的測試過程很快就推出,這次不知為何這麼慢。

無論如何,儘管起步晚,總算是起步了,但世界各地的研究人員正在加速研發醫生現在最需要的臨床就地測試技術。大流行時期的測試速度非常重要,能讓醫生立即知道誰感染了,不讓感染者進入老年病患區。

醫生們常用臨床即時測試技術來檢測流感病毒,15分鐘就知道結果。那些測試方法不是在患者樣本中尋找流感基因,乃是尋找病毒表面的蛋白質。測蛋白質沒有測基因的PCR那麼精確,有時測不到樣本中的丁點病毒,就給你一個錯誤的陰性結果,但它來得快。波士頓大學全球保健診斷實驗室主任Klapperich說,尋找新冠病毒蛋白質正在研發過程中。

另外一種測基因的技術叫作「等溫擴增」,其設備不像PCR機器那麼笨重,也可以滿足門診即時診斷的需要。等溫擴增技術有好幾種方法實現,雖不完美,但問題是沒有一種進入大規模投產使用階段,原因主要是市場動力不夠。(為甚麼?你可以想到,聯邦政府不負責醫療系統的設備供應,國務院沒有把防疫工作提到議事日程上!)

目前有好幾十家公司正在研發新冠病毒的臨床即時測試技術,各處於不同的研發階段。這些研發工作對於將來應對大流行爆發非常重要。比如加州聖地牙哥大學的醫生正在評估一套實驗體系,說是一小時可以拿出測試結果;另一家公司正在研發一種類似於懷孕測試的技術;還有一家公司按照他們的流感檢測模式來建立快速的新冠病毒測試。...

工程師們研發各種檢測工具,成果在他們手上,必須有人集中協調和做實驗,我們的醫療體系各部分需要合作。可惜在過去幾年中,這些新研發的測試技術大多停留在測試階段,眾醫院只知道標準的PCR測試,不知道有新的工具。

美國缺乏一種渠道,把這些臨床即時測試技術送到醫院,好像送PCR那樣。另外,如何把這些新測試技術和久經考驗的PCR技術相比較也不清楚。工程師們老早就在抱怨,只是各公司好像一直看不到需要,直到現在出現一個新病毒大流行。

本文內容取自科技文化媒體The Verge前天的報道Coronavirus Testing Shouldn't Be This Complicated,括號中的話是我的。也許有人會問,上帝為甚麼讓這樣的事發生?--不知道,事在人為,上帝甚麼事情都允許發生。

Tuesday, March 17, 2020

掌管退休生活的財務

本文內容取自AARP刊物的一個退休理財特別報告,Take Control of Your Financial Future,適合小康的讀者。文章提出四條新法則,改變以往的存錢用錢觀念:

第一條法則:財富不是一個錢數,而是智慧地消費你所積存的。最重要的智慧是學會節儉不浪費,而不是想當然地保持某種奢侈的生活方式。假如張三有100萬的積蓄,結果退休後每年花20萬,那麼5年後他就變成窮人了。你的積蓄能用多少年,這個年數才是你的財富。

第二條法則:你的基本吃住需要滿足之後,你的退休生活才會開心。假如張三退休後每年在社保福利之外還需2萬開銷付房貸等等,那麼他的100萬可以維持10年。假如李四能夠設法付清房貸和其它債務,手上還剩了20萬儲蓄,那麼她就有自由,可以削減某些不必要的開支,每年取用1萬,再加上社保福利,20年內可以經濟保持獨立,比那擁有100萬的張三還富有。

假如張三覺得每年1萬不夠用,又去工作每年多賺1萬花掉,以便維持每年2萬的生活標準,那麼多工作10年納稅之後比如多帶來8萬的存儲,按照每年2萬的花銷水平,只是多保障了4年的退休日子,財富仍然不如李四多。你說是少一些奢侈容易積累財富呢?還是延長工作時間容易?比如你可以租用小一些的居住空間,或者不買昂貴的高檔車。

第三條法則:儘量晚一些開始領取社保福利,可能的話先動用自己的積蓄。因為社保福利好像政府提供給你的年金,越晚開始領,福利就越大,而且在你去世後提供你的配偶同樣的福利。

我上次計算過開始領社保的最佳時間和方法,供你參考。總歸來說,夫婦中收入較高的一位應盡量等到70歲其社保額最高的時候開始領,而收入較低的一位提前先領。

第四條法則:你必須按照自己的情況靈活變通。假設你能夠把存儲起來的退休金都用來投資,一部分買債券,一部分買股票,那麼你的投資總的來說是逐年增長的。你在退休第一年取出存儲總額的4%來用(4%法則),逐年調整取出的比率,20-30年之後用光的可能性很小。

假如你存儲的數目足夠,或你的退休花銷中所包含的吃住等必需部分比較小,那麼你可以在投資回報高的年頭多用,比如5%,而投資回報差的年頭減少出外餐飲或旅遊,只取3%。

基督徒喜歡唱的一首詩歌是「我知誰掌管明天」,意思要把未來交託給主。但交託主不等於自己毫不負責。我們的確不知道自己的壽命,但上帝給我們機會、智慧、能力來掌管經手的財務。金錢遠不是退休生活快樂滿足的全部內容,能做自己喜歡做的事情,用心投入在自己對之有熱忱的公益事業上,都會增加在主裡的價值感和喜樂。

Sunday, March 15, 2020

WHO: COVID-19 Guideline & Answers

面對新病毒大流行危機來到美國,網上流傳不少關於如何防止感染新冠病毒的錯誤信息,這裡我特別將世界衛生組織的權威答案放在這裡,文章原載於我們本地報紙The Mercury News

Following is the WHO’s advice regarding what methods can and cannot kill the virus or otherwise prevent the transmission of COVID-19.

Hand-washing: Frequent washing with soap and water is effective in killing the virus. The water does not need to be hot, though warm water improves the soap’s efficiency. Dry hands thoroughly with a towel, paper towel or hand dryer.(洗手)

Hand sanitizers: As an alternative to soap and water, a sanitizer with at least 60 percent alcohol can be used. Most commonly available sanitizers have at least that much alcohol.(不方便立即洗手時使用擦手液)

Hand dryers: Hot-air dryers by themselves do not kill the virus.(電熱風不殺毒)

Ultraviolet disinfection lamp: WHO discourages their use because of the potential for skin irritation.(紫外線消毒可能引起皮膚過敏)

Saline nose rinese: There is no evidence it fends off coronavirus infection, or any respiratory infection.(鹽水沖鼻劑未必抵擋感染)

Spraying alcohol or chlorine on one’s body: This will not kill viruses that have entered the body, and it can harm mucous membranes. (75%) Alcohol and bleach or chlorine-based disinfectants are appropriate for cleaning surfaces, if used according to instructions.(按酒精/漂白劑使用說明消毒)

Garlic: No effect on coronavirus.(大蒜殺菌,但不殺病毒)

Sesame oil on the body: No effect on coronavirus.(噴灑芝麻油不殺毒)

Herbal remedies: No effect on coronavirus.(草藥偏方不殺毒)

Smoking: No effect on coronavirus.(吸菸不殺毒)

Vaccines: Flu or pneumonia vaccines have no effect on the coronavirus.(流感預防針不防止新冠病毒感染)

Antibiotics: They work only against bacteria, not any virus.(抗生素只抗菌,不抗任何病毒)

Masks: Wear a mask if you are coughing or sneezing. A healthy person needs to wear a mask only if taking care of a person with suspected coronavirus infection. Follow proper procedure in putting on, removing and disposing of the masks, including washing hands with soap and water before and after wearing a mask and not touching the front of a mask. Multiple masks are not more effective than one properly adjusted mask.(你如果咳嗽或打噴嚏就要戴口罩,健康人在接觸疑似病人時要戴口罩;戴口罩前後都要用肥皂洗手;戴多重口罩沒有用)

Thursday, March 12, 2020

漫畫:警覺病毒的一天

這人花了一天,很警覺地遵守美國疾控中心關於防止新冠病毒傳染的指南,發覺很容易「中招」。下面的漫畫原載於美國公共廣播電台網站的生活故事專欄 Goats and Soda文章






Tuesday, March 10, 2020

介紹歸因科學

歸因科學是一門比較新的研究領域,尋求解釋引起各種極端天氣的可能原因—氣候改變影響或惡化了天氣嗎?比如高溫、雷暴雨、熱浪、乾旱、野火、颱風、龍捲風、洪水本來就時有發生,氣候改變是否加劇了這些極端天氣,或增加了它們的頻率呢?

氣候是指一個地區長期以來的天氣模式,科學家現在利用大量測量數據,來在電腦上模擬氣候模型。他們要研究各種極端天氣事件的物理原因,它們是自然偶然?還是受了大氣層溫室氣體的影響,屬於人類活動引起的氣候改變惡果?

科學家長期以來一直預測氣候變化会加剧某些极端天气事件,或可能讓那種天氣發生得更加频繁。 通过归因研究,最近有迹象表明,這樣的預測是得到支持的。 他们不仅可以展示链接是真实的,还可以展示链接的强度。下面舉個例子。

2013年末,阿拉斯加灣出現了一件非常奇怪的事,科學家稱其為Blob。就是北太平洋水域出現了大股的熱能量,接著的南端水域--俄勒岡州和加州沿海—都發生同樣現象,有些區域的水溫比平時高了6攝氏度!這股熱浪直到2016年才開始消散。

大約同時,成百上千的簇状海雀在白令海中一个小岛上饿死了;而在阿拉斯加的Savoonga镇,村民在开阔的水域捕到了一只弓头鲸--这本來是不可能的,因为当地海水一直都有冰覆盖;由於冰不見了,通常在冰上切孔釣魚的人就不能做了。;另外,有毒藻类在太平洋沿岸到處开花。

科学家起初懷疑上述反常現象與Blob有關,但他們無法確定。現在他們知道了,這Blob不是天上掉下來的怪物。2016年的一份报告說,有两个因素。一个是气候的自然变异,而另一个則是人類活動帶來了非自然的“气候变化”干扰。

若不是人為的因素引起了全球氣候變化,阿拉斯加的冰海不會烤化。科學家說,大氣層中的二氧化碳增加了,而且越來越增加,使得白天吸收的太陽能熱量超過夜晚向宇宙散發的熱量,地表增溫。或許你無法說這次或那次極端天氣事件是人為活動引起,但總地說來全球變暖致使這些極端天氣更嚴重。

2017年8月末,墨西哥灣生成一股平常的熱帶風暴,然後風力很快變強大,成為颶風Harvey,停留在德州東南海面長達三天,在德州地區傾注了1.2米深的雨水,整個休士頓和一些沿岸城鄉被淹,有些地方雨和颶風積水共達3米之深。這是前所未見的現象,大約3000年才發生一次。

有位科學家估算氣候變化使總降雨量增加了多少--至少19%,可能將近34%。若不是氣候變化,洪水遠遠不會這麼嚴重。另一位科學家預測,於氣候變化,發生Harvey這種規模颶風的危險增加了3倍。第三位科學家估算結果是從1990年以來,發生Harvey規模颶風的危險增加了6倍。

Harvey只是開了頭,尾隨而來的是大西洋颶風Irma,途經許多加勒比海上的島嶼在美國佛州登陸,直攻喬治亞州和南卡州,引起25個龍捲風。接著有颶風Maria起來摧毀多米尼加共和國和美國的波多黎各島嶼領地,至今尚未完全恢復。大自然本來常有颶風,但氣候變化大大加劇了風力強度,引起了更嚴重的破壞。

怎知若沒有增加的二氧化碳排放,這些颶風本來會是甚麼面目呢?科學家們現在利用氣候模型的數據來模擬。1851年以前沒有礦石燃料作工業發展的能源,大氣中的二氧化碳有一定的比率,與現在的大氣層相比,算出那時的極端天氣發生的機會是現在的一半!

有的氣候模型比較複雜,包括從空氣、水、陸地收集到更多的數據,科學家們分享這些數據,用更快的電腦計算能力來分析,歸因科學領域一共發表了131項分析研究報告,其中三分之二得到的結論都是人類活動影響了氣候。

絕大多數的歸因報告結論都是說氣候變化惡化了極端天氣,比如美國西海岸的大批海星死亡現象。但有幾項報告發現,若沒有氣候變化,那些極端事件不會發生,前述太平洋Blob熱浪就是其中之一。另一項報告來自日本的氣象學家,提到2016年一股不尋常的亞洲熱浪。

還有一項報告,美國普林斯頓的地球物理流體力學實驗室研究人員分析2016年的全球各地氣溫,平均來說都高了1.2攝氏度。無論研究人員用甚麼氣候模型,怎麼也無法模擬出這樣的世界高溫紀錄天氣,結論只有人為引起了升溫。

本文內容取自Science News for Students網站的文章。

Sunday, March 8, 2020

關於新冠病毒傳染的評論



這幾天人人都談論這件事,沒人知道事情會發展到甚麼程度。Jason拿那條不幸的遊輪作推測根據,算出最糟情形,你可以參考。在治療方案出現之前,最好的應對恐怕還是不慌。慌張失措增加死亡率--諸如排隊搶購,增加感染機會又增加社會上真正困苦人的患難,其實對自己無益。

Thursday, March 5, 2020

Natural Disasters that Beg for Climate Action

Climate hazards are natural events in weather cycles. We’ve always had hurricanes, droughts and wildfires, flooding and high winds. However, we are currently witnessing a scale of destruction and devastation that is new and terrifying.

The last year alone has seen a series of devastating climate disasters in various parts of the world such as Cyclone Idai, deadly heatwaves in India, Pakistan, and Europe, and flooding in south-east Asia. From Mozambique to Bangladesh millions of people have already lost their homes, livelihoods, and loved ones as a result of more dangerous and more frequent extreme weather events.

Why are the weather events so severe? Simply put, changes in the global climate exacerbate climate hazards and amplify the risk of extreme weather disasters. Increases of air and water temperatures lead to rising sea levels, supercharged storms and higher wind speeds, more intense and prolonged droughts and wildfire seasons, heavier precipitation and flooding. The evidence is overwhelming and the results devastating:
  • The number of climate-related disasters has tripled in the last 30 years.
  • Between 2006 and 2016, the rate of global sea-level rise was 2.5 times faster than it was for almost all of the 20th century.
  • More than 20 million people a year are forced from their homes by climate change.
  • The United Nations Environment Programme estimates that adapting to climate change and coping with damages will cost developing countries $140-300 billion per year by 2030.
A growing trend of more destructive climate disasters

In March 2019, Cyclone Idai took the lives of more than 1000 people across Zimbabwe, Malawi and Mozambique in Southern Africa, and it devastated millions more who were left destitute without food or basic services. Lethal landslides took homes and destroyed land, crops and infrastructure. Cyclone Kenneth arrived just six weeks later, sweeping through northern Mozambique, hitting areas where no tropical cyclone has been observed since the satellite era.

The start of 2020 found Australia in the midst of its worst-ever bushfire season – following on from its hottest year on record which had left soil and fuels exceptionally dry. The fires have burned through more than 10 million hectares, killed at least 28 people, razed entire communities to the ground, taken the homes of thousands of families, and left millions of people affected by a hazardous smoke haze. More than a billion native animals have been killed, and some species and ecosystems may never recover.

Higher sea temperatures, linked to climate change, have doubled the likelihood of drought in the Horn of Africa region. Severe droughts in 2011, 2017 and 2019 have repeatedly wiped out crops and livestock. Droughts have left 15 million people in Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia in need of aid, yet the aid effort is only 35 percent funded. People have been left without the means to put food on their table, and have been forced from their homes. Millions of people are facing acute food and water shortages.

Over the last year deadly floods and landslides have forced 12 million people from their homes in India, Nepal and Bangladesh. Just 2 years ago exceptionally heavy monsoon rains and intense flooding destroyed, killed, and devastated lives in the same countries. In some places the flooding was the worst for nearly 30 years, a third of Bangladesh was underwater. While some flooding is expected during monsoon season, scientists say the region’s monsoon rains are being intensified by rising sea surface temperatures in South Asia.

An El Niño period, supercharged by the climate crisis, has taken Central America’s Dry Corridor into its 6th year of drought. Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador and Nicaragua are seeing their typical three-month dry seasons extended to six months or more. Most crops have failed, leaving 3.5 million people, many of whom rely on farming for both food and livelihood, in need of humanitarian assistance, and 2.5 million people food insecure.

The disproportionate impact on the world’s poorest people: Extreme weather disasters affect all countries, rich and poor. But as we face a future with enhanced risks, it is critical to face the reality of those who bear the burden of our changing climate. This is an issue of justice: those living in poverty are the hardest hit by climate change despite being the least responsible for the crisis.

Climate change is forcing people from their homes, bringing poverty on top of poverty and increasing hunger. People in poorer countries are at least four times more likely to be displaced by extreme weather than people in rich countries.

The world faces a race against time to reduce emissions and help the most vulnerable cope with climate impacts that are already being faced today and will escalate in the years ahead. It’s time to act now.

This article was originally published at non-profit international Oxfam confederation website.

Tuesday, March 3, 2020

複雜「氣候模型」的建構

本文是接續環境研究的筆記--第三章:科學家如何建構複雜的氣侯模型。

氣候模型就是用數學模型來表達重要的地球系統成分(比如海洋、大氣層、生物圈、兩極冰凍圈、地球水圈)。我們用氣候模型來模擬地球系統的能量平衡,以及它如何受自然因素與人為因素變化的影響。

比如,你怎樣向不懂的人說明和分析海洋對氣候改變的影響呢?1990年代第一位建構氣候模型的海洋研究科學家就是希望能對白宮參謀長說明情況。當時電腦的計算能力還很差,不過美國大氣層研究中心設法,把他們的三維空間的全球氣候模型簡化為一維的海洋大氣說明,只花幾分鐘就可以完成模擬,用圖形顯示出來。

現在的電腦計算能力大大增強了,而複雜的氣候模型不用最先進的超級計算設施是不可能的。比如2004年英聯邦的一台超級電腦NEC SX-6每秒鐘可以計算1.9兆次,可把全球氣候分成40x40平方公里的格子來代表,測算每格中海、陸、空的太陽輻射,降雨、降雪的水、氣環流量。到2014年,他們的超級電腦Gray XC40速度達到1.6萬兆次,可把全球氣候格子縮小到1.5x1.5平方公里,將夏季英聯邦上空的對流風暴展示出來。

氣候方格的密度每增加一倍,需要的電腦計算力大約增加10倍。除了提高圖形解析度,電腦的計算能力還可以用來輸入稍微不同的海洋大氣初始值或其它不定參數進行模擬,以便更嚴格地分析模型的不確定性。

科學家還可以利用更多的電腦計算力來模擬多個世紀的氣侯變化,來估算氣候變化的可逆轉性。實際上,各氣候模型中心都要根據現有的電腦資源來確定研究目標和做試驗,在空間模型密度、物理過程複雜性、和歷史數據之間做出取捨。

你希望模擬和分析複雜的物理過程,常常就無法兼顧高度的時空數據保真。例如英聯邦2011年HadGEM2-CC模型的平面格子是250公里方圓,而垂直高度84公里分為60層。這一模型根據質量、能量、溼度的動量守恆微分方程,必須為全球166萬個網格單元在每個時間段(大約10-20分鐘)內模擬出至2100年的變化情景。它的整個氣候模型是大氣層、海洋、陸地、冰川、碳循環、動態植被因素組合起來的,沒有一位科學家能夠獨立駕馭整個模型,因為每個專科發展和累積數據,都是幾百名、甚至上千名科研人員的工作成果。

最早的氣候模型是1960年代末期建立起來的。有兩位研究人員模擬大氣中二氧化碳加倍,用一般的碳循環模式(GCM)來分析北半球在500公里方圓分辨率的9層垂直高度。他們必須把海洋當作有無窮溼度的大沼澤地,並且海水流動不傳遞熱,又假定二氧化碳在大氣層的濃度到處一樣,根據水量平衡公理估算出土壤溼度和雪川面積等等。

按1970年代的電腦超級計算能力,上述氣候模型的模擬花800天時間只能運行兩次,一次模擬出當代的二氧化碳濃度,另一次模擬出雙倍碳濃度--每次運行的最後100天需要估算大氣層的準平衡狀態。結果發現碳濃度加倍會導致全球升溫2.93攝氏度,與聯合國IPCC第五次報告的估算結果吻合得很好。

為甚麼氣侯模型不斷更新換代,越來越複雜,卻和最初的地球平均溫度模型估算的結果大致相同?這和科學家過去40年投入的研究有關。絕大多數時候,增加的超級計算能力都投注在更完整的模型建造上,而不是用在增加原來系統的圖像分辨率。

比如近年來加入系統的碳循環反饋信息,以及大氣層的化學成分,證明現有的氣候模型已經包括了最重要的物理過程。而且有些內在的系統變數,其不確定性是無法降低的。

隨著氣候模型的規模和費用增加,將模型的模擬結果向社會展示描述出來的壓力也增加,為的是作出必要決策。但這是不簡單的任務,發表的雜誌文章需要強調社會了解這些氣候模型的重要性。

除了溫室氣體使地球平均溫度升高,氣候模型還評估到氣溫變化為局部環境系統帶來的衝擊。各國合作的研究與計算設施現在要把工作重點放在遞交「與政策有關的氣侯預測」上,比如改進天氣預報每年能夠救多少性命、經濟上能省多少抗災費用等等。

當然,這些氣候模擬受某些環境變數的影響,結果的波動性很大。比如有項研究將一個氣候模型運行40次,每次設定稍微不同的大氣層狀態,但從2010年到2060年增加同樣的溫室氣體濃度。結果發現所預測北美冬季氣溫的改變趨勢相當不確定:雖然大多數結果是有所升溫,有幾次算出加拿大會升溫5攝氏度以上,另外幾次則預計美國某些地區會有所降溫。這種模擬的初始狀態值所引起的不確定結果似乎對其它的氣候模型--比如季節性的降雨量--也一樣。

那麼建構第21世紀的氣侯模型到底包括哪些因素?需要各種專門的科學研究團隊:化學、氣候學、計算機科學、地理學、水文學、數學、海洋學、物理學、和統計學。有些重要的物理氣候影響因素是最近幾十年來才加入的,比如碳循環的研究,又比如動態冰覆蓋層的研究。

近年來投入氣候模型研究的超級計算硬件設備大概有1億英鎊,每年消耗250萬瓦的電力(相當於5000英聯邦家庭的耗電)。採用所觀測到的最新最好的海洋和大氣數據作初始條件,利用50萬處理器,每秒鍾模擬21世紀末的氣候變化次數達16倍10的15次方(16x1015),花了共6個月的時間,存貯了170億千兆字節氣候圖像的快照。

這些模擬結果要對照實地測量的大氣、陸地、海洋狀態數據,加以評估,然後提供給其它氣候模型研究團隊,同時送給制定政策的人作參考。…五年之後,他們會提出下一個氣候模型,對超級計算設備進行更新換代…

Sunday, March 1, 2020

勸人歸向耶和華

2020年四旬節默想。小先知約珥的話,2章13節:「歸向耶和華你們的上帝,因為祂有恩典有憐憫,不輕易發怒,並且有豐盛的慈愛,隨時轉意不降災禍。」

偏偏不少人不相信上帝有恩典有憐憫,也不知道豐盛的慈愛是甚麼形狀的。他們以為懲罰罪惡(包括不分青紅皂白人的一切大小過犯),就是上帝的最高慈愛...--請問你怎麼去傳上帝的福音?你只剩下論斷了,看見災禍降臨時沒有安慰,只能虛假地提出悔改認罪的要求。

上週我參加一個葬禮,那位牧師大概知道在座有一些尚未信主的人,他的主要信息就是:信的人上帝才會賜福。而他對「信」的定義顯然是做某種(決志的)禱告--好像上帝不知人尋求善惡的心思意念,專門聽你嘴唇發出的某個聲音似的。

基督徒應該首先歸向上帝,放下自己的偏執和歧見,其他人才可能被上帝的愛所吸引。下面是一位天主教背景的國會議員針對美國政治右翼基督徒這方面問題的發言,我認為一針見血。我要問這些自以為絕對正確的基督徒:你怎麼去傳上帝的福音?